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Upon entering the shop, a learner will generally, to use a shop phrase, "be introduced to a hammer and chisel;" he will, perhaps, regard these hand tools with a kind of contempt. Seeing other operations carried on by power, and the machines in charge of skilled men, he is likely to esteem chipping and filing as of but little importance and mainly intended for keeping apprentices employed. But long after, when a score of years has been added to his experience, the hammer, chisel, and file, will remain the most crucial test of his hand skill, and after learning to manipulate power tools of all kinds in the most thorough manner, a few blows with a chipping hammer, or a half-dozen strokes with a file, will not only be a more difficult test of skill, but one most likely to be met with.

This, again, reaches the proposition that power is heat, and heat is power, the two being convertible, and, according to modern science, indestructible; so that power, when used, must give off its mechanical equivalent of heat, or heat, when utilised, develop its equivalent in power. If the whole amount of heat represented in the fuel used by a steam-engine could be applied, the effect would be, as before stated, from ten to fifteen times as great as it is in actual practice, from which it must be inferred that a steam-engine is a very imperfect machine for utilising heat. This great loss arises from various causes, among which is that the heat cannot be directly nor fully communicated to the water. To store up and retain the water after it is expanded into steam, a strong vessel, called a boiler, is required, and all the heat that is imparted to the water has to pass through the plates of this boiler, which stand as a wall between the heat and its work.

Starting again from the cutting point, and going the other way from the tool to the frame, there is, first, a clamped and stayed joint between the material and platen, next, a running joint between the platen and frame; this is all; one joint that is firm beyond any chance of movement, and a moving joint that is not held by adjustable gibs, but by gravity; a force which acts equally at all times, and is the most reliable means of maintaining a steady contact between moving parts.Planing machines of the most improved construction are driven by two belts instead of one, and many mechanical expedients have been adopted to move the belts differentially, so that both should not be on the driving pulley at the same time, but move one before the other in alternate order. This is easily attained by simply arranging the two belts with the distance between them equal to one and one-half or one and three-fourth times the width of the driving pulley. The effect is the same as that accomplished by differential shifting gearing, with the advantage of permitting an adjustment of the relative movement of the belts.

This last sentence brings the matter into a tangible form, and indicates what the subject of gain should have to do with what an apprentice learns of machine construction. Success in an engineering enterprise may be temporarily achieved by illegitimate means—such as misrepresentation of the capacity and quality of what is produced, the use of cheap or improper material, or by copying the plans of others to avoid the expense of engineering service—but in the end the permanent success of an engineering business must rest upon the knowledge and skill that is connected with it.One thing more must be noticed, a matter of some intricacy, but without which, all that has been explained would fail to give a proper idea of steam-hammer-action. The valve motions are alluded to.To obtain a true understanding of the nature of power is by no means the difficulty for a beginner that is generally supposed [12]; and when once reached, the truth will break upon the mind like a sudden discovery, and ever afterwards be associated with mechanism and motion whenever seen. The learner will afterwards find himself analysing the flow of water, the traffic in the streets, the movement of ships and trains; even the act of walking will become a manifestation of power, all clear and intelligible, without that air of mystery that is otherwise inseparable from the phenomena of motion. If the learner will go on farther, and study the connection between heat and force, the mechanical equivalent of heat when developed into force and motion, and the reconversion of power into heat, he will have commenced at the base of what must constitute a thorough knowledge of mechanics, without which he will have to continually proceed under difficulties.

CHAPTER XXVII. COMPOUND HAMMERS.

There is, perhaps, no one who has achieved a successful experience as an engineer but will acknowledge the advantages derived from early efforts to generate original designs, and none who will not admit that if their first efforts had been more carefully directed, the advantages gained would have been greater.There is also a distinction between machine and hand cutting that may be noted. In machine cutting it is performed in true geometrical lines, the tools or material being moved by positive guides as in planing and turning; in hand operations, such as filing, scraping or chipping, the tools are moved without positive guidance, and act in irregular lines.

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(1.) Into what two divisions can a knowledge of constructive mechanics be divided?—(2.) Give an example of your own to distinguish between special and general knowledge.—(3.) In what manner is special knowledge mostly acquired?—(4.) What has been the effect of scientific investigations upon special knowledge?—(5.) What is meant by the division of labour?—(6.) Why have engineering tools been less changed than most other kinds of machinery during twenty years past?—(7.) What is meant by machine functions; adaptation; construction?—(8.) Why has the name "mechanical powers" been applied to screws, levers, wedges, and so on?—(9.) Can power be conceived of as an element or principle, independent of mechanism?Every one who uses tools should understand how to temper them, whether they be for iron or wood. Experiments with tempered tools is the only means of determining the proper degree of hardness, and as smiths, except with their own tools, have to rely upon the explanations of others as to proper hardening, it follows that tempering is generally a source of complaint.

Gravity, or "overshot" wheels, as they are called, for some reasons will seem to be the most effective, and capable of utilising the whole effect due to the gravity of the water; but in practice this is not the case, and it is only under peculiar conditions that wheels of this class are preferable to turbine wheels, and in no case will they give out a greater per cent. of power than turbine wheels of the best class. The reasons for this will be apparent by examining the conditions of their operation.